Relationship Between Public and Private Policing Essay

Abstract This paper will explore the historical relationship between public and private policing. It will also discuss how the relationship has changed in recent years. Relationship Between Public and Private Policing Since the terrorist attacks that struck inside the heart of our country on 11 September 2001, civilian law enforcement agencies have been busy performing not only their regular duties of crime prevention and response, but also taking on a large number of homeland security functions and all of this during a time when local, state and federal budgets are ever tightening. Similarly, private security institutions are under comparable pressure to carry out their traditional duties to provide protection of information, property and people, as well as sharing the additional duties of homeland security. Despite the fact that public and private police organizations share the same ultimate goal of protecting the public, they do not have a long history of working well together. Security officers have historically been looked down upon by law enforcement personnel. Some police feel that there is a definite lack of pre-employment screening, certification, training, standards, and regulation of security officers. Other police officers feel that security personnel receive insufficient training, especially those who carry weapons. Another perception that some police have is the view that security officers are those who couldn’t make it as law enforcement officers so they settled for a career in security. Meanwhile, some security officers view police as snobs who do not have an understanding of the range of capabilities, functions and resources offered by the private security field and thus fail to appreciate the role they can play. Private policing really got its start in the U.S. in the mid-1800s with the  foundation of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in Chicago Illinois by Allan Pinkerton, the first man to be appointed as a detective in the Chicago Police Department. Since the federal government did not have personnel that could follow criminals across state lines, and local police personnel were ill equipped to handle the job, the Pinkerton Agency was hired to deal with criminal gangs (BSIS, n.d.). The company also performed many duties that are now handled by federal and state law enforcement agencies such as guarding railroads, conducting criminal investigations, and providing security advice to banks and other businesses. â€Å"Policing is not necessarily the exclusive dominion of government, but rather a ‘service’ that could be assumed either by public or private agencies† (Elizabeth Joh, 2004). According to the Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, in 2000 th ere were 797,000 law enforcement officers employed in the United States by local, state and federal agencies. In comparison, private security organizations throughout the country employed roughly two million security officers (National Policy Summit, 2004). With these numbers it only makes sense for there to be a cooperative relationship between public and private police agencies. Joining the capabilities of the two sides would benefit each profession and greatly enhance the protection level that could be afforded to the citizens of this country. For example, the public police agencies usually receive more current threat information, while the private police agencies tend to maintain control over the areas or facilities that are considered vulnerable to attack. It has been estimated that â€Å"85 percent of the country’s critical infrastructure is protected by private security organizations† (National Policy Summit, 2004). One factor that I believe has had a positive impact on improving relations between public and private police agencies is the crossover of personnel. Many times when law enforcement personnel at the local, state or federal level retire from their agencies, they tend to take on positions of employment with in the private police field as Directors or other higher level positions due to the degree of their experience. These personnel maintain their contacts from within the law enforcement realm which can facilitate opportunities for much needed training and education of security officers, as well as increased probabilities for the sharing of information between agencies. Another aspect which is closely related is the hiring of  off-duty police officers to perform private security functions and details. Many companies feel that hiring an off-duty police officer to perform private security functions can be an effective crime deterrent when there is a visible police officer presence. Most public police agencies allow their officers, with advanced permission from the department, to work security duties or details while wearing their police uniform and even operating their department issued police vehicle. Another advantage of hiring off-duty police officers is that they maintain the power of arrest and use of force at all times, whether on or off-duty. So when a crime occurs, you already have a police presence on scene that can handle the matter. There are even some police agencies which are actually commercializing their services. According to Massimiliano Mulone, â€Å"police organizations are selling the services they provide to private individuals/organizations, from renting off-duty police officers to offering training for the private security workforce† (2012). There are some negative aspects to hiring off-duty police personnel to perform private security duties. First of all, the average police officer will charge at least twice as much as the hourly wage a typical security officer will be paid. Another issue to consider is the fact that some police officers will not perform some of the more menial tasks that a regular security officer would be required to perform as par t of their normal duties. Additionally, since the police officer is not depending on this part time job as a primary source of income, they may not put the same level of devotion into completing the tasks of the position as a security officer that is performing this job as their primary source of employment. Furthermore, â€Å"recent research finds that that fatigue associated with overtime and outside employment may contribute to accident and injuries involving police officers and may lead to more citizen complaints† (James Brunet, 2008). Another issue of concern is that while a police officer is performing in an off-duty capacity as a security officer, they can be called away from these duties to assist on-duty officers with incidents that occur nearby. Lastly, a company that hires off-duty police personnel to work in a private security capacity must be aware that there are unique legal issues to be considered, such as when Miranda warnings should be used and under what cir cumstances searches may be authorized. In almost every major city throughout the country, shopping malls, hospitals, apartment complexes, university campuses and housing associations depend on various private police organizations for security. Evidence shows that private policing has considerably decreased crime rates in neighborhoods across the country. â€Å"After the ‘Grand Central Partnership,’ an organization of over 6,000 businesses, hired a private security force to guard a 70 block area in the midtown Manhattan area, crime rates dropped by 20 percent after two years, by 36 percent after three years and 53 percent after five years† (Kai Jaeger and Edward Stringham, 2011). Another example of this statement is the â€Å"introduction of private policing by Critical Intervention Services in a low-income area of Florida that reduced crime rates an average of 50 percent† (Jaeger and Stringham, 2011). The greater the number of private property establishments that can be covered by private police agencies will allow the public police officers to concentrate their efforts on responding to the more significant crimes. The reality is that government agencies are being required to do more with less, cut budgets and ultimately cut the number of public police officers that are needed to protect the public. On the other side of the issue, private security organizations are constantly growing and providing more professional and better trained security officers in order to stay competitive in the private policing field. In many instances it is getting harder to distinguish between the public and private police officers and the overall duties they can perform. By combining the efforts of the two spheres of responsibility it would greatly benefit both sides, as well as provide a higher level of protection for the citizens of this country. References Brunet, J. A., PhD. (2008). Blurring the line between public and private sectors: The case of police officers’ off-duty employment. Public Personnel Management, 37(2), 161-174. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.bellevue.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/215949642?accountid=28125 Bureau of Security and Investigative Services. (n.d.) A Brief History. Retrieved from http://www.bsis.ca.gov/about_us/history.shtml Jaeger, K. and Stringham, E. (2011). National Center for Policy Analysis. Private policing options for the poor. Retrieved from http://www.ncpa.org/pub/ba763 Joh, E. E. (2004). The Paradox of Private Policing. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 95(1), 49-131. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.bellevue.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/218388345?accountid=28125 Mulone, M. (2012). When private and public policing merge: Thoughts on commercial policing. Social Justice, 38(1), 165-183. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.bellevue.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1022716230?accountid=28125 National Policy Summit. (2004). Building Private Security/Public Policing Partnerships to Prevent and Respond to Terrorism and Public Disorder. Retrieved from https://www.theiacp.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=LNLjjcfSktQ%3D&tabid=432

How Electrical and Neurochemical Activity of the Brain Is Related to Behaviour Essay

In order for the brain to function correctly in an effective and efficient way it relies on the support from nerve cells that are responsible for the relay of vital information to and from the brain. This information is required to help us know how to feel, behave and perform depending on the different situations. Therefore the circuit of neurons or nerve cells develop a system where they process the information from cell to cell via the synapse eventually leading to the brain which controls how we behave and feel. This system is based on electrical and neurochemical activity performed by the brain. Presynaptic cells release chemicals known as neurotransmitters into synapses, which allow an electrical or chemical signal to pass to another cell. These signals eventually travel their way to the brain via the central nervous system, where in turn the brain releases a message that directs the body on how to deal or cope with the stimulus. There are many known diseases that can influence this process causing neurological problems, amongst drug abuse, alcoholism and brain damage is illnesses that are degenerative diseases that cause damage to the nerve cells which in turn leads to behavioural and psychiatric problems, one of these being Alzheimer’s disease (Alzheimer 1907). Alzheimer’s is the result of decreased brain size which occurs when a huge portion of nerve cells die and the tissue in the brain reduces in size. The detoriation and reduced levels of the nerve cells means that nerves are not able to respond as well as they should be able too. This in turn causes chemical disruption which then slows down the transmission of chemical impulses. Alzheimer’s affects the different areas of the brain. It causes the cortex to shrivel up which damages areas required for thinking, planning and remembering. It causes the hippocampus to also shrink which is required to help build new memories. The disease also makes the ventricles (fluid filled spaces in the brain) to grow larger than normal. Scientists have discovered that patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s tend to have fewer nerve cells and synapses in the brain. The brain holds abnormal clusters of proteins (plaques) which tend to build up between the nerve cells which make it harder for the synapses to perform their job of transferring messages to another cell. This means the nerve ells eventually die and develop tangles which are twisted strands of protein. These tangles destroy the cell transport system by preventing nutrients and other essential supplies travelling too other cells, therefore these cells eventually die. Due to the cells dying the brain begins to shrink therefore sacrificing areas of the brain that is required for everyday life, this than leads onto behavioural problems caused by insufficient neural activity. An Alzheimer suffer will show repetitive behaviour where they constantly ask the same question or perform the same action continuously; this is due to the damage of the brain. They will also become restless and suffer with sleep deprivation which can lead to agitation and frustration. This is all the result of change in neural activity and despite drugs being prescribed the patient will still experience anxiety and depression which leads to violent and abusive outbursts. A common behavioural symptom is also experiencing hallucinations and delusions that are frustrating for both the sufferer and their support network. These symptoms and effects of Alzheimer’s are all due to the disruption in neural activity which is caused by the shrinking of the brain due to inadequate functioning of nerve cells. The effect of different areas of the brain shrinking means that they are not able to perform their job as well as a healthy brain can.

Poverty Satire Essay

With the advancement of poverty in the United States it is time to solve the homeless situation. Thousands of Americans are homeless and taking up space on the city’s streets. A simple solution to this problem would be to allow the homeless to reside in landfills. They would be able to sort through the waste to find appropriate cardboard boxes to live in. This could also be used as a form of employment allowing them to sort through recycling to improve the environment. It is also a statistical fact that many Americans throw away food that goes untouched. Not only would they have a permanent residence of their choosing but this also insures that they would have plenty of food to maintain their strength to sort trash. The act of throwing food away is often forgotten, but with this new profound idea other Americans can feel charitable each time they throw away their trash. Their leftover food will go straight to the landfill and become a nice snack or a whole meal for one of the landfill residents. Society will no longer have to worry about starvation because essentially anyone can provide for the poor. People will eventually feel better about the act of throwing away hundreds of thousands of dollars of wasted food knowing that it will go to a family in need. However, people will be questioning why it has to stop with food. Used tissues, old dental floss, and that rusted razor that everyone has lying about will ensure that the landfill residents have acceptable hygiene. The rainwater combined with the last few congealed drops of some liquid soap will keep the landfill inhabitants fresh and clean. There will be competition in the landfills for the best food and supplies or the best cardboard, but th at should be promoted because they need to understand that although everything will be essentially thrown out to them, it will still be â€Å"survival of the fittest†. The landfill inhabitants will be able to sleep in peace knowing that their shelter was handmade. Newspapers and junk mail will be of great use to the residents because it could provide as a floor or even a roof. Although there might be a rise in identity theft because of the information civilians have thrown out in the trash, it should come as a lesson because people should know to shred their important documents before throwing them out. The  landfill residents can also use their resources to better their education. The writings and nutrition facts on the backs of cereal boxes along with the short stories about fields of lavender and honeysuckles on lotion bottles can easily suffice as a quick English lesson. The shelters in the landfills will consist primarily of cardboard boxes but it will give the residents a chance to express their creativity. The residents could even form small village like shelters within the landfill to be better protected from the other scavengers. The fig ht for the best supplies will endanger quite a few residents, but in the long run they should be able to value the relationships they might form with one another. Many people would probably argue that this solution to homelessness is too dangerous or inhumane but it will prepare the homeless people for a life after the landfill. The landfill would offer a refuge for the poverty stricken victims to be provided for and it would also allow the homeless to provide a service for the public. The landfill already offers such valuable resources that are just going to waste. It would be unreasonable to think that the landfill residents couldn’t sort through the trash to figure out what could be recycled; this could be a form of employment in the landfills. Ensuring that the public will be rewarded for their generous donations, the homeless would essentially pay back the public with the use of reusable goods. The rising homeless count is rising and this is an adequate solution to a major problem. Not only would the landfill provide a new home for the homeless it would give city residents peace of mind knowing that the homeless people are safely a way out of sight.

Sexual Orientation and Inequality Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sexual Orientation and Inequality - Term Paper Example This paper examines historical discourse on sexuality and gender identity how this history informs perceptions of sexual orientation and gender inequality. This paper traces the history and development of the conceptualization of gender roles and gender identity and how sexual orientation is dictated by those roles and identities. Therefore this paper is divided into two main parts. The first part of this paper examines the history and development of heterosexuality as a social construction of gender roles, gender identity and sexual orientation. The second part of this paper examines the history and development of non-heterosexual identity and how traditional gender roles and identity influence how non-heterosexual identities are treated by the dominant heterosexually constructed society. Sexual Orientation and Inequality Introduction Gender inequality on the basis of sexual orientation is deeply rooted in social constructs that dictate gender identity and gender roles (Tomsen & Mas on, 2001). Historically, sexuality was informed by a perception that heterosexuality is the norm and sexuality is understood by reference to heterosexual norms and standards (Kitzinger, 2006). In this regard, heterosexual norms typically link heterosexuality to nature and thus being heterosexual means being normal or being normal (Sullivan, 2003). Therefore homosexuality, lesbianism, and bisexuality are judged by reference to the dominant heterosexual norm. This paper examines the definitions and historical developments informing sexual orientation and gender identity and identifies why sexual orientation forms the basis for gender inequality. It is argued that although, non-heterosexuals have made significant gains in terms of political, legal and social acceptance, preconceived notions of non-heterosexuality continues to be a basis of social marginalization. It would therefore appear, that marginalization on the grounds of sexual orientation may never be fully eliminated. It would appear that as long as cultural institutions formally alienate non-heterosexuals, it can be expected that social alienation of non-heterosexuals will be perpetuated. This research paper is divided into two main parts. The first part of this paper examines the history and development of heterosexuality and what this means for conceptualizing non-heterosexual identities. The second part of this paper examines the history and development of the conceptualization non-heterosexuals and how this conceptualization has changed over time. Heterosexuality Up to the 1980s, heterosexuality was defined in dictionaries as natural sexual relations. It was only during the 1980s that dictionaries defined heterosexuality as sexual relations between persons of the â€Å"opposite sex† (Sullivan, 2003, p. 119). It therefore follows that historically heterosexuality was defined in a way that distinguishes non-heterosexuality as abnormal and thus formed the basis of discrimination on the grounds o f sexual orientation. Despite a revised dictionary definition of heterosexuality, attitudes toward heterosexuality as natural sexual relations remained unchanged for the most part. As Caplan (1987) observed, any indication that individuals did not conform to heterosexual norms was perceived as a threat to normative perceptions of sexuality and what should be normal. Although prejudice against non-heterosexuality has declined persistently since the 1990s, prejudice continues to remain prevalent throughout the US (Herek, 2000). In the US heterosexism and religious fundamentalism†

Unfair Dismissal Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Unfair Dismissal Report - Essay Example 9. Employed in Victoria or in a Territory. In determining if this has been the case, the Commission must have regard to a number of factors including: 1. whether there was a valid reason for the termination and whether the employee was notified of that reason; 2. whether the employee was given an opportunity to respond; 3. if the termination related to unsatisfactory performance by the employee and whether the employee had previously been warned about that unsatisfactory performance; 4. the degree to which the size of the employer's business, or the absence of dedicated human resource management specialists, may have had an impact on termination procedures. The AIRC hears cases which are still unresolved after going through the conciliation process. Its role is to decide, after hearing from both sides, whether the dismissal was harsh, unjust or unreasonable. It also exercises a range of powers under the Act in relation to ensuring the establishment and maintenance of fair minimum wages and conditions of employment, preventing and settling industrial disputes, facilitating agreement making between employers and employees, conciliating and arbitrating claims in relation to the termination of employees and dealing with matters concerning industrial organizations. The AIRC seeks to help employers and employees to reach a settlement in a way that minimizes legal costs and discourages vexatious and unreasonable claims. If matters are not settled, the AIRC will make a decision that is binding on both the employer and employee. Under the Act, the AIRC is responsible for conciliation in both unfair dismissal and unlawful termination cases. Only unfair dismissal cases, however, can be arbitrated in the AIRC. Procedural fairness has two meanings in... Unfair Dismissal Report The Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC) had to decide on a balance of probabilities whether the applicant had proven her allegations regarding unlawful discrimination and harassment taking into account all the evidence available to it. The AIRC seeks to help employers and employees to reach a settlement in a way that minimizes legal costs and discourages vexatious and unreasonable claims. If matters are not settled, the AIRC will make a decision that is binding on both the employer and employee. Procedural fairness has two meanings in this context. Firstly, one of the characteristics of a Tribunal is informality - which generally means excluding the rules of evidence, whilst retaining due process, natural justice or procedural fairness. The AIRC are required to do what is fair in the circumstances of each case. The onus is on yielding a fair result and if that requires greater formality then the AIRC will do so in order to establish any disputed facts. For example in the case study, the Tribunal arranged for the parties to agree the matters which were not in dispute prior to the hearing of the matter. Tribunal members hearing cases are also ready to help applicants to understand the issues in their cases and the procedures in the Tribunal where they can. In particular, Mrs Huang was given the opportunity to change her interpreter. The Tribunal also reminded the interpreter that he could ask to stop the proceedings if they were going too quickly for him to ensure an accurate translation of what was said. The Tribunal was of the view that it was imperative that Mrs Huang understood the proceedings as if it were her first language.

Source Integration Task Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Source Integration Task - Essay Example This has also been maintained that it compels high schools to reduce the range of subjects they teach which is also shown as a significant limitation of the current entrance exam system. Further, university entrance exams of the day cause unreasonable stress on young people. To sum all these arguments up, the university entrance exams should be abolished because they reduce education to the simple memorizing of information, force high schools to reduce the range of subjects they teach, and cause unreasonable stress on young people. University entrance exams also result in limiting the content that high schools teach to their students. Significantly, one of the most essential defects of the current entrance exam system has been that the high schools are forced to reduce the range of subjects they teach as they need more to focus on the university entrance exam syllabus. It is natural for every high school to expect its students to enter the best schools for their further studies. In the attempt to help the students pass the entrance exams and secure admission in the best schools, the high schools are forced to concentrate on the topics of these exams and ultimately sacrifice broad range of subjects. That is to say, these high schools are forced to dedicate the depth of learning to focus on exam content only in order to secure pass in the entrance exams. However, it cannot be ignored that such an educational practice contributes too little for the overall development of the students. On the other hand, such narr ow-based education limits the benefits of education and it does more harm than good. It is indubitable that a system of broad-based education is needed by young learner’s intellectual development and it is important to provide such a curriculum to the overall development of the students. Therefore, it is important to realize the current

Mordern database Managment assignment Four Essay

Mordern database Managment assignment Four - Essay Example Presently there have been extensive growth in the use and development in the database technology. Additionally, this new and advanced technology of the database is used to manage large volumes of organizational and business data. In addition, the utilization of database technology and systems in supporting applications that used to handle the business and query based report production is the basic traditional utilization of this technology. Though, the size as well as volume of data being handled increases new and interesting concerns. Presently this technology is used to facilitate businesses in attaining effective competitive advantage and underlying business processes. This new database technology also helps improve business processes and decision making. Moreover, at the present businesses are using the database based business intelligence systems such as data warehouse, data mining tools, and OLAP technology (Turban, Leidner, McLean, & Wetherbe, 2005; Laudon & Laudon, 1999). I have selected the topic which is related to use of data warehousing technology structure implementation at Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart is a world’s largest retail store chain. This paper is written by Patrick  ¨ Ohlinger with title of â€Å"Wal-Mart’s Data Warehouse† This paper can be accessed using following link: http://www.derbaum.com/tu/WalMarts%20DWH.pdf. In this paper Ohlinger (2006) stated that the use of data warehousing technology at Wal-Mart is offering a lot of advantages to its business. The new technology based working structure has offered a lot of business advantages to overall operational management and the business. In this scenario the use of the data warehousing technology offers better support for the analysis of customer buying behavior, which leads to effective formulation of the policies by the Wal-Mart management to present more attractive deals to its customer

Precis for two articles or write a good topic you think Essay

Precis for two articles or write a good topic you think - Essay Example The most vulnerable areas can be acquired and be managed at a cheaper cost compared the involved costs for all reserve regions. This is because of lower prices in the regions and the total cost for the threatened regions is estimated at $ 4 billion as compared to the total $ 30 billion for protection of all reserve areas. Protecting the areas is also feasible because most of the pressure to the threats is external. This means that change in domestic policies by the affected nations can facilitate protection. Demands by external forces such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund are examples of the forces that enhance irresponsible domestic activities to degradation of biodiversity. The institutions promote depletion of resources. The authors also recommend centralization of conservation research and management centers because of the success that such centrally managed institutions have achieved in developed countries. An integrated approach of protection and minimization o f harm is recommended as a solution in the environment where information on biodiversity and involved threat is available but the society has still failed to protect the environment from degradation. The article therefore offers a concern and immediate need for environmental conservation with hope of success (Pimm, et. al. 2207, 2208). The authors suggest possible extinction in the contemporary world because of the suspected interference with the environment whose adverse effects to biodiversity can be compared to previously five extinctions over the past 540 million years. Human activities whose effects include killing of biotic factors and variation of climate and habitats cause this and recovery is likely to take millions of years. Even though historical data, from fossils, and contemporary data are however biased and inaccurate and can misinform positions on extinction, a mass decrease in number of species, 75

Genetically Modified organism uses and applications Essay

Genetically Modified organism uses and applications - Essay Example GMO has far and wide many uses and applications. The technology used in GMO is called modern gene technology (Lee, 2008). Genetic engineering has led to the development in pharmaceutical and medicinal drugs technology. Many organism that are of medicinal significance haven been developed in bioreactors rather than in the field. This has so far diversified the cultivation of an organism in the reactors. Example of the organism: Chlamydomonas rehardtii (alga) and Physcomitrella (moss). The diversification has led to a great monitoring in order to get the desired results on time. Important researches in the establishment and development of treatment of different diseases and ailments have applied other genetic models to come up with modified drugs. Genetic engineering in agriculture has fetched some of the best output (Ciola, 2005). There is increased yield per unit area, reduction in production cost, enhanced composition of nutrient, resistance to diseases and pesticide, enhanced nutri ents, food security among others. There has been also advancement in crops that matures faster in harsh climatic and weather conditions that would not have otherwise matured (Lee, 2008). In the same regard, the number of animals has fetched better prices in the market due to the increased production and also resistance to diseases such as foot and mouth. A good example is the salmons which have grown at a very faster rate. In addition, soil salinity has affected many parts of the world in all agricultural aspects. This has led to poor growth, and in some cases the crops have fail to grow. For instance San Joaquin Valley is an example of diverse effect of salinity. GMO research will produce crops tolerant to saline condition such as mangrove in agricultural plants. A Mangrove gene (Avicenna marina) has been implanted into tobacco plant thus resisting salt, and other ionic stresses (Ciola, 2005). Global population has been increasing tremendously, and this has resulted to food shortag e and famine with conclusive statistics of one child dying in every two seconds worldwide. These deaths emanate from starvation without taking into account people who are very poor and undernourished. There is a need to embrace genetically engineered technology not only to the farmers, but also to the societies worldwide to produce better crops in the shortest time possible with the greatest output (Lee, 2008). Research on insects has been an area of concern and importance in equal measure, in the quest to curb and control parasitic diseases. For instance, development of GM mosquitoes has been made to represent SM1 protein, which prevents the passage of plasmodium (malaria parasite) into the gut of mosquito. This leads to the interruption of its cycle and makes it resistant. GM mosquitoes being released into the environment may eradicate transmission of malaria without using harmful chemicals such as DDT (Koch et al, 2010). Transgenic animals have genes introduced through transfecti on gene called transgenic. Introduction of DNA segmentation is integrated into the animal cell. This phenomenon is applicable to various organisms and it is often called transformation. Rabbits and mice are some of the transgenic animals. Mice are often preferred to other animals because it has favorably disposed gestation period, estrous cycle, producing several offspring per pregnancy, vitro fertilization and also availability

Write an analysis on the story barn burning by William faulkner Essay

Write an analysis on the story barn burning by William faulkner - Essay Example Compelled by his habit, he gets annoyed with De Spain’s attitude and he drops some horse droppings on his very expensive carpet. De Spain asks him to give him 20 bushels of corn against the charge of the rug. Furious, Abner sues him and the court orders to give De Spain 10 bushels of corn instead of 20. Abner still furious decides to set the De Spain’s barn on fire. Sarty stops his father from doing wrong but when he does not listen, he warns De Spain and runs away and never looks back towards his family again (Wilson 434). The story has been one of the best selling of its time. It was also adapted to a short film in 1980, which was very much loved around the world. The story basically gives the idea of believing in what is right and never standing by lies and falsehood. It is pretty much proven that the Snopes’ family completely relies on each other in right or wrong decisions. The family seems to be living in their own world which is outside society values and even outside law, rather than on traditional values of right and wrong. Even though it’s your own father, one should stand what is right always even if they are standing alone. Family loyalty is very important but what is more important is that you never give anybody a chance to questions your honesty, integrity and truthfulness. This will make you away from your family once in a while, but there will come a time when the family will be reunited and you will get the reward of your good deeds. The story has decently listed characters, the main being the father, Abner Snopes and the son, Sarty Snopes. A peace demanding judge is mentioned twice at different occasions. The first person who complained was named Mr Harris and the second was the person that was sued who also was the new landlord De Spain. Mentioned only one are Sarty’s mother, his two sisters, his brother and his aunt. The characters have not been over done by the writer.

Power Electronics Intensive Solutions Essay Example for Free

Power Electronics Intensive Solutions Essay Abstract—There is a clear trend in the automotive industry to use more electrical systems in order to satisfy the ever-growing ve-hicular load demands. Thus, it is imperative that automotive elec-trical power systems will obviously undergo a drastic change in the next 10–20 years. Currently, the situation in the automotive in-dustry is such that the demands for higher fuel economy and more electric power are driving advanced vehicular power system volt-ages to higher levels. For example, the projected increase in total power demand is estimated to be about three to four times that of the current value. This means that the total future power de-mand of a typical advanced vehicle could roughly reach a value as high as 10 kW. In order to satisfy this huge vehicular load, the ap-proach is to integrate power electronics intensive solutions within advanced vehicular power systems. In view of this fact, this paper aims at reviewing the present situation as well as projected future research and development work of advanced vehicular electrical power systems including those of electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles (EVs, HEVs, and FCVs). The paper will first introduce the proposed power system architectures for HEVs and FCVs and will then go on to exhaustively discuss the specific applications of dc/dc and dc/ac power electronic converters in advanced automo-tive power systems. Index Terms—Electric propulsion, electric vehicles (EVs), fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), internal com-bustion engines, motor drives, power converters, semiconductor devices. I. INTRODUCTION. BY THE time the commercialization of the next-generation car comes around, advanced power electronics and motor drives will have already established themselves as prime compo-nents of advanced vehicular drive trains. Advanced power elec-tronic converters and traction motor drives will be responsible for a major part of the vehicle’s energy usage. As of now, the automotive market is making rapid developments in case of the hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Commercially available HEVs include the Toyota Prius, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Lexus RX 400 h, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Accord Hybrid, and Ford Escape Hybrid. In the case of future HEVs, power electronic converters and associated motor drives, which control the flow of electrical energy within the HEV power system, promise to be the keys to making HEVs more fuel efficient and emit lower harmful pollutants. Manuscript received March 15, 2005; revised October 26, 2005. Recom-mended by Associate Editor J. Shen. The authors are with Electric Power and Power Electronics Center, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616-3793 USA (e-mail: [emailprotected] edu). Digital Object Identifier 10. 1109/TPEL. 2006. 872378 As is well known, in the first half of the past century, the 6-V electrical system in automobiles served the purpose of ignition, cranking, and a satisfying few lighting loads [1]–[5]. Since then, there has been a constant rise in vehicular power requirement. Performance loads, such as electric steering, that were tradition-ally driven by mechanical, pneumatic, and hydraulic systems, are now increasingly being replaced by the electrically driven systems, in order to increase the performance and efficiency of operation. Furthermore, luxury loads have also increased over time, imposing a higher demand of electrical power [3]. It must be pointed out here that the rate of increase of automotive loads is assumed to be about 4% per year. Thus, such load demands have resulted in the need to scale up the onboard vehicular power level. Considering these aspects, several decades ago, the voltage was raised from its earlier 6-V level to the present day 12-V level and, now with an ever-in-creasing demand forecasted into the future, there is a need to switch over to much higher voltage levels of 42 V, 300 V, or higher, as the case may be [3]–[5]. Due to the high voltage levels being produced in HEVs, it becomes essential to have dc/dc converters to supply all the auxiliary loads on board the vehicle. Although the dc/dc converter technology is well devel-oped for low-power applications at lower cost, much work needs to be done for high-power applications. It is an immense chal-lenge to meet all the vehicle standards for electromagnetic in-terference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) as well as specifications of reliability and packaging [4], [5]. In ad-dition, power electronic converters also dictate how and when fuel/electricity is used in HEVs. A suitable dc/ac inverter draws dc power from the batteries to drive the electric traction motor, which in turn provides power to the wheels. The dc/ac inverter also performs the function of recharging the batteries during re-generative braking in HEVs. Based on this fundamental background, proving the criticality of power electronics for HEV applications, this paper will re-view the role of power electronics and compare the associated advanced power system architectures for HEV as well as electric vehicle (EV) and fuel cell vehicle (FCV) applications. The var-ious design issues for power electronics intensive HEV and FCV power systems and the current and future trends will be high-lighted. In addition, the proposed 42-V PowerNet is also focused upon, emphasizing on the description of its key capabilities and requirements. Furthermore, the paper will also discuss the mild hybrid vehicle, wherein the major opportunities for automotive power electronics are outlined. Finally, few system-level issues 0885-8993/$20. 00  © 2006 IEEE 568IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 21, NO. 3, MAY 2006 Fig. 1. Conventional 14-V dc power system architecture. that drive the relative power electronics size and cost functions will also be addressed. II. CONVENTIONAL AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS AND| Fig. 2. Typical representation of the more electric hybrid vehicle power system| | CONCEPT OF MORE ELECTRIC VEHICLES (MEV)| | || architecture. | | During the mid 1950s, the automotive industry decided to| | | opt for 12-V electrical power systems for vehicles, since the| | | then popular 6-V system was rapidly becoming plagued by the| and rear-wheel steering, which will be driven electrically in the| | increasing vehicular load demands. The battery became a six-| future. | | cell module instead of three cells, at approximately the same| As is well documented in related literature, most of the fu-| | energy rating. The electrical system demand had risen from the| ture advanced electric loads require power electronic controls. | | 100 W of the early 1900s to typically about 1 kW by the 1990s,| In advanced future vehicles, power electronics is forecasted to| | as more and more electrically powered devices were installed| perform three major tasks. First task is simple on/off switching| | [6]–[8]. | of loads, which is performed by mechanical switches and relays| | The conventional electrical system in an automobile can| in conventional cars [7]. The second task is to act as a suitable| | essentially be divided into the architectural elements of energy| controller for electric traction motors. Finally, power electronics| | storage, generation, starting, and distribution. The distribution| intensive power systems will not only be used for the obvious| | system of a conventional 14-V power system satisfies vehicular| task of changing system voltage levels, but also for converting| | loads such as, interior/exterior lighting, electric motor driven| electrical power from one form to another, using dc/dc, dc/ac,| | fans/pumps/compressors, and instrumentation subsystems [6]. | and ac/dc converters. | | A simple rendition of the conventional 14-V electric power| As mentioned earlier, due to the ever-increasing electrical| | system architecture is shown in Fig. 1. | loads, the automotive industry is opting for more electric power| | As is clear from Fig. 1, the conventional power system ar-| systems. Due to this, MEVs will need highly reliable and fault-| | rangement has a single 14-V dc voltage level, with the vehic-| tolerant electrical power systems to deliver high quality power| | ular loads being controlled by manual switches and relays. As| from the source to the electrical loads. It is extremely important| | mentioned earlier, the present average power demand in an au-| that the voltage level/form in which power is distributed be taken| | tomobile is approximately 1 kW. The voltage in a 14-V system| care of. A higher voltage will reduce the weight and volume| | actually varies between 9 and 16 V at the battery terminals, de-| of the wiring harness, among several other advantages [7], [8]. | | pending on the alternator output current, battery age, state of| Fig. 2 shows the concept of a future hybrid MEV, making use| | charge, and various other minor factors [6], [7]. This results in| of high voltage (300 V) automotive power system architecture. | | overrating the loads at nominal system voltage. In addition to| Currently, the proposed MEVs are at a transitional stage, in-| | these disadvantages, the present 14-V system cannot handle fu-| volving different systems voltage levels [8]. It is expected that| | ture electrical loads to be introduced in the more electric envi-| the future MEV power systems will most likely be comprised of| | ronment of the future cars, as it would be expensive and ineffi-| a single main voltage bus (high voltage) with a provision for hy-| | cient to do so.| brid (dc and ac), multivoltage level distribution and intelligent| | In more electric vehicles (MEVs), there is a trend toward| energy and load management. | | expanding electrical loads and replacement of mechanical| | | and hydraulic systems with more electrical systems. These| III. ADVANCED DRIVE TRAIN ARRANGEMENTS FOR ELECTRIC,| | loads include lights, pumps, fans, and electric motors for var-| | | | HYBRID ELECTRIC, AND FUEL CELL VEHICLES| | ious functions. In addition, they also include some advanced,| | | | | |electrically assisted vehicular loads, such as power steering,| This section introduces the various drive train arrangements| | air conditioner/compressor, electromechanical valve control,| of pure battery electric vehicles (EV), series/parallel/series-par-| | active suspension/vehicle dynamics, and catalytic converter| allel/complex HEV drive trains, and pure FCV/hybrid FCV| | [6]. Furthermore, additional advanced vehicular loads include,| drive trains. Based on the review done in this section, the| | anti-lock braking, throttle actuation, ride-height adjustment,| ensuing sections will focus on the power electronics intensive| |. EMADI et al. : POWER ELECTRONICS INTENSIVE SOLUTIONS| 569| Fig. 3. Topological arrangement for an electric vehicle (EV) drive train. power system architectures for these advanced drive train arrangements. A. Battery Electric Vehicle (EV) Drive Train Topology A purely electric drive system principally replaces the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the various transmis-sion systems with an all-electric system. As is well known, rechargeable chemical batteries are the traditional option as en-ergy sources for EVs. But they tend to be heavy and expensive to replace over their limited lifetimes. In addition to traditional batteries like lead–acid, nickel metal–hydride (Ni–MH), and nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd), there are advanced technologies like lithium–polymer (Li-polymer) and lithium–ion (Li–ion) bat-teries. Despite the popularity that these advanced batteries have gained for portable electronic applications, they haven’t quite maintained the same reputation for use in EVs. Most practical EVs still use lead-acid batteries, with the more sophisticated ones using Ni–MH batteries [8], [9]. A basic overview of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) is as shown in Fig. 3. More recently, the automotive industry is cutting back on EV production, and has declared HEVs and FCVs to be the future of advanced vehicle technologies. This is because BEVs cost sig-nificantly more than gasoline vehicles, due to the fact that EV battery modules are currently being produced in very small vol-umes [9]–[11]. Higher vehicle prices are partially offset by the fact that fuel costs for battery electrics are about one-third those of a gasoline-powered vehicle. In addition, BEVs have fewer moving parts than gasoline cars, and hence, require less mainte-nance. The future of battery EVs is somewhat uncertain at this time, but their development has already made important contri-butions to advancing electric drive train and storage technolo-gies needed by both HEVs as well as FCVs [10], [11]. If further breakthroughs in battery technologies occur, BEVs could yet prove to be the future of clean transportation. B. Series HEV Drive Train Topology A series hybrid vehicle is basically an electric vehicle with an on-board battery charger. An ICE is generally run at an optimal efficiency point to drive the generator and charge the propul-sion batteries on-board the vehicle, as shown in Fig. 4. When the state of charge (SOC) of the battery is at a predetermined minimum, the ICE is turned on to charge the battery [12]–[15]. The ICE turns off again when the battery has reached a desir-able maximum SOC. The engine/generator set maintains the battery charge around 65%–75%. It must be noted that, in a se- Fig. 4. Typical layout of a series HEV drive train. Fig. 5. Schematic of a parallel HEV drive train configuration. ries HEV, there is no mechanical connection between the ICE and the chassis. The advantage with the series HEV configuration is that the ICE is running mostly at its optimal combination of speed and torque, thereby, having a low fuel consumption and high effi-ciency. However, there are two energy conversion stages during the transformation of the energy between the ICE and the wheels (ICE/generator and generator/motor) [16], [17]. Some energy is lost because of the two-stage power conversion process. A se-ries hybrid vehicle is more applicable in city driving. C. Parallel HEV Drive Train Topology A hybrid vehicle with the parallel configuration has both the ICE and the traction motor mechanically connected to the trans-mission. A schematic figure of the parallel hybrid is shown in Fig. 5. The vehicle can be driven with the ICE, or the electric motor, or both at the same time and, therefore, it is possible to choose the combination freely to feed the required amount of torque at any given time [18]–[20]. In parallel HEV, there are many ways to configure the use of the ICE and the traction motor. The most widely used strategy is to use the motor alone at low speeds, since it is more efficient than the ICE, and then let the ICE work alone at higher speeds. When only the ICE is in use, the traction motor can function as a generator and charge the battery. A parallel HEV can also have a continuously variable transmission (CVT) instead of a fixed step transmission [19], [20]. With this technique, it is pos-sible to choose the most efficient operating points for the ICE 570IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 21, NO. 3, MAY 2006 Fig. 6. Typical drive train configuration of a series-parallel combined HEV. Fig. 7. Schematic of a complex HEV drive train. at given torque demands freely and continuously. The result is lower fuel consumption due to the inherently more efficient fuel usage. Energy is also saved due to regenerative braking. The advantage with the parallel HEV configuration is that there are fewer energy conversion stages compared to the se-ries HEV and, therefore, a lesser part of the energy is lost [19]. In fact, the parallel HEV drive train depicts fairly lower losses compared to other HEV topologies and, hence, has a compara-tively higher overall drive train efficiency. D. Series-Parallel HEV Drive Train Topology The series-parallel HEV is a combination of the series and parallel hybrids. There is an additional mechanical link between the generator and the electric motor, compared to the series con-figuration, and an additional generator compared to the parallel hybrid, as shown in Fig. 6. With this design, it is possible to com-bine the advantages of both the series and parallel HEV config-urations [20]. It must be highlighted here that the series-parallel HEV is also relatively more complicated and expensive. There are many possible combinations of the ICE and traction motor. Two major classifications can be identified as electric-in-tensive and engine-intensive. The electric-intensive series-par-allel HEV configuration indicates that the electric motor is more active than the ICE for propulsion, whereas, in the engine-inten-sive case, the ICE is more active [20], [21]. A common opera-tive characteristic for both types of series-parallel HEV systems is that the electric motor is used alone at start with ICE turned off. During normal driving, the ICE alone propels the vehicle in the engine-intensive case. On the other hand, the ICE and electric motor propel the vehicle in the electric-intensive case [20]. When acceleration is needed, the electric traction motor is used in combination with the ICE to give extra power in both of the configurations. During braking or deceleration, the trac-tion motor is used as a generator to charge the battery and, in stand still, the ICE can continue to run and drive the generator to charge the battery, if needed. Another form of series-hybrid configuration is shown in Fig. 7, which is a power split HEV topology. This topology includes a planetary gearbox, which connects the ICE, traction motor, and generator. Varying the speed from the two planetary gear pinions, connected to the electric motor and the generator, can control the ICE speed. When the ICE turns off, the vehicle is propelled in the pure electric mode. However, at most of the operating points, the energy flows in a similar fashion to either that of a parallel HEV or to that of a series HEV. In parallel HEV mode, energy flows from ICE via the gearbox to the wheels, whereas, in the series HEV mode of operation, the energy flows from generator and motor to the wheels [21]. The proportion between these two energy flows depends on the overall vehicle speed. Under most operating conditions, this configuration is a combination of series and parallel hybrid vehicle. It is also possible to operate this in parallel mode for some operating conditions. One of the motivating factors for use of the power split HEV topology is to increase the vehicle power capability for a given transmission. This in turn enables the usage of continuously variable transmission concept for light duty HEV propulsion ap-plications, such as pick up trucks and small buses. E. FCV Drive Train Topology. The potential for superior efficiency and zero (or near zero) emissions has long attracted interest to fuel cells as the potential automotive engine of the future. However, systematic efforts to realize the efficiency and emissions benefits of fuel cells in the transportation sector have materialized only in the last 10 years. The overall goal of ongoing fuel cell research and development programs is to develop a fuel cell engine that will give vehicles the range of conventional cars, while attaining environmental benefits comparable to those of battery-powered electric vehi-cles. Although the technology is currently quite expensive, fuel cells offer benefits including high overall efficiency and quiet operation due to few moving parts. A typical fuel cell based propulsion system is shown in Fig. 8. The hydrocarbon fuel such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol, or ethanol is first reformed to obtain the required hydrogen using a reformer (or fuel processor) [22]. This hydrogen rich gas from the reformer is fed to the anode of the fuel cell. It is also possible to store the on-board the vehicle using a pressurized cylinder, instead of using the reformer for con-verting the fuel to -rich gas. The oxygen (or air) is fed in to the cathode fuel cell. Depending on the fuel cell stack configu-ration, and the flow of hydrogen and oxygen, the fuel cell stack produces the dc output voltage [22], [23]. The fuel cell stack EMADI et al. : POWER ELECTRONICS INTENSIVE SOLUTIONS| 571| Fig. 8. Typical topological arrangement of a hybrid fuel cell vehicle drive train. output is fed to the power conditioner (power electronic con-verter) to obtain the required output voltage and current. Ide-ally, the power conditioner must have minimal losses leading to a higher efficiency. Power conditioning efficiencies can typ-ically be higher than 90% [24]. IV. POWER ELECTRONICS INTENSIVE POWER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES FOR HEVS A. Advanced Electrical Features in Future HEV Technologies As mentioned earlier, there is a trend in the automotive in-dustry to replace more engine driven mechanical and hydraulic loads with electrical loads, due to higher efficiency, safety re-quirements, and driver’s comfort. All of these new functions re-quire the application of power electronics. In most of the cases, the cost of the power electronics dominates the argument of in-troducing such functions. Many of these functions will only ap-pear in concept vehicles in the projected future. Some of these include luxury loads, such as information and entertainment that have received lots of hype recently. The other class of features is -by wire, where â€Å"† stands for an advanced function such as, â€Å"steer† or â€Å"brake. † Another class of advanced electrical features includes power steering pump, electric ac-tive suspension system, electromechanical valve control, elec-trically heated catalytic converter, air-conditioning systems, and water/oil/fuel pumps [25]. There are also other loads such as throttle actuation, ride-height adjustment, rear-wheel steering, which are proposed to be driven electrically in the future. Fig. 9 depicts a summary of some of the future electrical features auto-motive power systems. It is virtually mandatory that most of the proposed future electric loads will indeed require power elec-tronic controls of some sort. B. Advanced HEV Topology Using ISA System In view of research and development work for MEVs, it must be pointed out that one of the leading breakthroughs in the au-tomotive industry is the introduction of the integrated starter-generator (ISG) system for mild HEVs [26]. The ISG is pri-marily an electric machine with a rotor instead of a flywheel mounted on the crankshaft between the ICE and transmission. A schematic diagram of an ISG system used in conjunction with a high-voltage vehicular power system is shown in Fig. 10. The Fig. 9. Future electrical features in more electric vehicle power systems. Fig. 10. Integrated starter-alternator (ISA) based HEV drive train. ISG provides the functions of an electric starter and an alternator [26], [27]. By using suitable advanced power electronic con-verter systems, it is possible for the ISG to compensate the drive train oscillations to provide more comfort. The power electronic converter system controls the ISG operating state, depending on the load status and the battery charge status. Improved fuel economy and reduced emissions are two prime advantages of an ISG system. Using a start/stop cycle, the ICE is turned off during deceleration or after the vehicle comes to a complete stop. The ISG can be used to propel the vehicle from a stop condition (and/or at a set speed), to restart the ICE. The ISG will also be able to route power produced by regenerative braking into the energy storage devices (batteries or ultra-capac-itors) [26], [27]. It can also be used to provide power enhance-ment, when taking off from a stop, or in added acceleration for passing. C. 42-V/12-V Dual-Voltage Vehicular Electrical Systems The 42-V/12-V dual-voltage architecture is being popularly touted as one of the solutions for the ever-increasing in-vehicle load demand. The operating voltage criteria being considered for 42-V systems are shown in Fig. 11. The maximum dynamic over voltage is limited to 58 V, including the transient voltages 572IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 21, NO. 3, MAY 2006 Fig. 11. Typical operating voltage criteria for 42-V HEV power systems. Fig. 13. Schematic of a dual voltage (14 V and 42 V) architecture using one battery. Fig. 12. Schematic of a dual voltage (14 V and 42 V) architecture using two batteries. [28]. In this case, the system charging voltage is set at 42 V. The entire electrical system in the vehicle is run at a nominal value of 42 V, whenever the engine is running. Some of the advantages of such a system include, high efficiency and performance, less expensive operational procedures, reduced total installed power due to the integration of the mechanical and hydraulic power into the electrical power system, and reduction in the overall design complexity. The transition to an entirely 42-V dominated architecture cannot be done immediately. Therefore, it is assumed that a dual voltage automotive power system will exist at least for a while. There are various ways to implement a power electronics intensive dual voltage power system. The schematic used in Fig. 12 illustrates a dual (42 V–14 V) battery system. Fig. 13 shows a schematic using only one single 42-V battery, and Fig. 14 illustrates a structure in which the dual voltage is generated by a single alternator, which has two output voltages. In the dual battery system, the first (36-V) battery is optimized for high power delivery, while the second (12-V) battery is optimized for low powers to support key-off loads plus hazard lamp operation [28], [29]. In other words, in this structure, the starting function will be isolated from the storage function required for â€Å"key-off† loads. This architecture provides oppor-tunities to improve existing high power loads by moving them to the 42-V side. It also minimizes changes to existing 14-V features, like lighting loads. However, this system has two batteries, which when com-pared with today’s one 14-V battery, implies more cost, weight, and packaging space. The other new component in this system is Fig. 14. Schematic of a dual stator dual voltage (14 V and 42 V) architecture using two batteries. the 42-V/14-V dc/dc converter. The overall cost of power elec-tronics is still considered too high for automotive applications. However, power electronic converters are capable of providing seamless energy transfer between two energy storage batteries and help improve reliability of some critical vehicular functions, which require a backup battery. In contrast, the single battery schematic of Fig. 13 is based on the desire to avoid cost, weight, and packaging problems cre-ated by the additional battery. The idea is that the power man-agement system should be smart enough to manage the key-off loads from depleting the high-voltage battery to the point that the vehicle cannot be started [29]. It is critical to point out here that this architecture also uses a bidirectional dc/dc converter be-tween the 42-V and 14-V buses. The schematic shown in Fig. 14 uses a more complicated alternator, with two sets of stator wind-ings, to provide power separately to the 42-V and 14-V buses. In this structure, again, high power loads are connected to the 42-V bus and the 14-V bus supplies low-power electrical mod-ules [29]. In addition to the above-described architectures, there exist many other strategies and variations of dual-voltage automo-tive power systems. The auto industry at this point is stagnant with regards to selecting appropriate dual-voltage MEV archi-tectures. One of the main focal points of research in selecting EMADI et al. : POWER ELECTRONICS INTENSIVE SOLUTIONS a suitable MEV system is to determine which options provide the best economic value to possible customers. The other major concerns with the introduction of 42-V power systems are phys-ical and practical viability aspects, such as arc faults and ensuing fire hazards. These and various other practical issues are dis-cussed in the following section. 1) Practical Issues Related to 42-V Automotive Power Sys-tems: As is apparent, by increasing the present 14-V network to 42-V, significant component and system changes within the vehicle will be necessitated. One of the major motives for this change is because of the nature of faults and their subsequent consequences, due to the higher current carrying wires in a 42-V automotive power system environment. It is obvious that the ten-dency is to produce longer arc faults, which have to be addressed to provide automotive safety. Wires that are semi-cut or scraped, in all probability, cause longer arc faults at higher system volt-ages. Furthermore, various research issues also arise from the point of view of vehicular power electronics and motor drives. For example, by reducing the mild HEV power system operating voltage (from 150 V/300 V to 42 V), the required current to pro-vide the necessary power increases. Thus, this corresponds to the entire winding of the electric traction machine to be restruc-tured. Issues such as heat transfer and protection also require a detailed investigation before the 42-V architecture becomes practicable in the auto industry. On the other hand, power electronic switches in 42-V sys-tems may be required to handle RMS currents in the proximity of about 400 to 500 amps/phase [29]. Currently, in order to switch such high profile currents, parallel-operated power electronic switches are being proposed, since using single-level switches is highly uneconomical. Recently, advanced MOSFET switches have been introduced for use with prototype 42-V automotive power systems. Trench IGBTs have also made noteworthy progress from the point of view of providing 42-V architectural solutions, wherein the research focus is mainly on solving reliability and short-circuit current capability issues. D. Power Electronics Solutions for HEVs Power electronics is an enabling technology for next genera-tion of vehicles, which should be cleaner, smarter, more precise, more efficient, and more flexible. In the past decades, power electronic devices were avoided mainly because of their cost issues. The reasons for increased interest in automotive power electronics can be separated into the ensuing sections. 1) New Architectures: By increasing new electrical loads, cost and complexity of the system is on the increase. Such archi-tectures need new switching and reliability features. Power elec-tronics makes the possibility of integrating switching and fusing functions into one component with higher reliability. Possibility of implementing different control methods on power electronic systems is another reason to go away from relay switching. Also, by implementing integrated sensing techniques in power elec-tronic devices, diagnosis and fault detection becomes easier to implement. Furthermore, development of clean and energy effi-cient vehicles in future vehicle technologies such as EVs, HEVs, 573 and FCVs is not possible without implementing new architec-tures, which are available using power electronics. 2) Power Conversion on Demand: Most of the auxiliary drives in vehicles are designed for worst-case scenarios. Power electronics and motor drive topologies make it easier to have higher efficiency by providing adjustable speed drives. Es-pecially, engine-cooling fans have been designed recently, implementing power electronic controls and adjustable speed drives. 3) Voltage Conversion on Demand: Different components in vehicles need different levels of voltages. Different voltage levels in dual-voltage architecture are available using power electronic converters. Induction or synchronous machines need ac voltages with high power for propulsion, and small motors for fans and pumps require ac voltage with low power [30], [31]. Converting dc-to-ac voltages and dc-to-dc voltages with different voltage levels is not possible without using power elec-tronic converters. 4) Precise Electronic Control: Engine controls such as igni-tion or fuel injection need precise timing and dynamic control of actuators. Fuel injectors should work on very high pressure with more precise opening time. Engine developers are working on systems to replace the camshaft with electronically controlled variable valves, promising up to 25% more fuel economy. These controls cannot be imagined without the use of power elec-tronics. 5.

Labeling Theory Of Deviance Essay Example for Free

Labeling Theory Of Deviance Essay Various theories have been put forward to explain the causes of crime and delinquency in society. The Labelling theory of crime argues that the tendency to perceive and treat people as offenders precipitates their engagement in crime. It is based on the hypothesis that people will assume the labels that they have been given to them by the society. Labelling in this case works to reinforce deviant behaviour as well as solidifying the deviant identities in the society. In other words labelling people as criminals plays a significant role in increasing or rather causing crime in the society. (Burke R,2005). As Tannenbaum, an early sociologist supporting the labelling theory of crime argued that the process of tagging, defining, identifying, segregating, describing and emphasizing that certain individuals as deserving special treatment is a way of stimulating, suggesting, suggesting and evoking the traits being complained of makes people become what they are described as being. Symbolic interactionalism is based on the agency analysis of deviance and social control. In this case deviance is viewed as a label which is imposed on the subjects who after rejecting or accepting the labels construct deviant identities as well as careers. To change such a situation the need for radical transformation is more of a necessity than a requirement. Labelling theory of crime can be blamed for the increased instances of crime as the criminal justice system tries to curb it. People who are arrested, prosecuted and punished are labelled as ‘criminals’ and the society deems them as such. A large proportion of the society also joins hands in labelling them as such and this increases their tendency to indulge in criminal behaviours. When people are labelled as criminals it is difficult for them to effectively adjust into the society and for instance they may fail to obtain legitimate employment, a factor that increases their likelihood to indulge in crime. (Burke R,2005). They may also face isolation from the mainstream society and this could trigger psychological problems which are highly correlated to criminality. When the labelled criminals internalize the self concept that they are criminals they tend to increase criminality behaviours as after all they are perceived as criminals and should behave as such. (Coser L, 2006). Offenders ought to be treated as sick characters to make it easier for the criminal justice system to offer best treatment for ease reintegration into the society. This way the stigmatization would be dealt with amicably. Labelling could occur from the society as a whole or the system, family, among peers as well as in schools from teachers. Labelling in crime tends to be more frequent or intense among the minority groups whose voice is almost insignificant in society. How a society reacts after it has labelled criminals is what determines if a crime is to dwindle or intensify. Societies that labels criminals and for a long term reject them in the society increases their likelihood to commit crime while the society that tries to assist the labelled criminals to effectively integrate into the society reduces the rates of crime that could have been attributed by labelling. Erving Goffman is among the sociologists whose ideologies could be useful in explaining the labeling theory of crime. He is popular for the notion of total institutions. He defined ‘total institutions’ as places of residence and work where a large number of like-situated individuals are cut off from the wider society for an appreciable period of time. Together these people lead an enclosed formally administered round of life. Goffman further highlighted the discrepancies between those who reside in the total institutions and those in the larger general population. In the larger population man works, plays and sleeps in varying places, with varying people, different authorities and in the absence of an overall rational plan. (Hawkins J and Kirkland F, 2001). This is contrary with the scenario in the total institutions where there are barriers between those three aspects. Life in the total institutions is clear or definite and this creates the notion that they exist for a good reason among the general population. There is no freedom in the total institutions as is experienced in the ‘home world’ or the general population. To Goffman the inmates being sent to prisons or total institutions already know the culture they are to expect though the reality is actually felt or experienced after admission. (Hawkins J and Kirkland F, 2001). Goffman identified three major phases in the life of an inmate. The first one is before they get into the total institutions that is when they are still in the ‘home world’, when they in the institutions and when they re enter the home world after release from the total institutions. He focused on the similarities that exist in the varying institutions. He argues that all aspects of life are conducted in the same place and under the same or a single authority. This means that all prisons will have similar experiences. All these aspects were carried on in the immediate company of a large batch of others all of whom were treated alike and needed to do the same things together. Another observation made was that all phases of a day’s activities were to be tightly scheduled and one activity led at a pre-arranged time to the next. (Willcocks D, Peace, S and Kellaher l, 1987)Notably, the whole sequence of activities was imposed from a higher system of explicit formal rulings and a body of officials a clear indication of alienation and dominance within the total institutions. The various enforced activities are brought together into a single rational plan which is designed to fulfill the official aims of the institution. The roles that are performed by the inmates in the total institutions serve interests or are for the aims of the institution rather than the individual. Goffman identified four major dimensions of institutional life ranging from the rigidity of the routine, block treatment of inmates, depersonalization of inmates and social distance between the staff and the inmates which Goffman termed as binary management. (Willcocks D, Peace, S and Kellaher l, 1987) Before one gets into prison they are from the ‘home world’ where they already have an established conception of themselves. Entrance into the ‘total institutions’ strips them off the benefits attached to the’ home world’. Here, they are subjected to a series of abasement, degradation and humiliation. The consequence of this is that their self becomes horrified. When in the institution an individual develops a moral career which is determined or influenced by his surrounding. The role of the significant other becomes critical at this point. Goffman observed further that in the total institutions the process by which individuals were mortified was rather standard across all of them. This is a clear indication that life in these institutions is quite different from that which is experienced in the larger world and that it is a difficult task to have inmates maintain the same traits they had before they got there. (Willcocks D, Peace, S and Kellaher l, 1987). Again, since the conditions were similar across the total institutions they were likely to exhibit similar traits. The first restriction of the self for the inmates takes place when the total institutions act as a barrier between the inmate and the general population. In the civilian life one’s sequential roles are not in conflict with one another and so no roles hinders or rather blocks the performance of the others regardless of how frequent they were. Life in the institutions is in such a manner that role scheduling is disrupted as the inmates do not dictate what to do and when to do it. In other words they are denied the freedom to decide what role to perform and at what time. Instead there are round the clock surveillance where orders given are to be followed to the letter. In addition to the role scheduling being disrupted in the institution, role dispossession also takes place, Visitors are restricted and one is also restricted from frequenting places they initially did. Depending on whether the entrance into the total institution was voluntary or involuntary entry to such institutions somehow prepares the individual to withdraw from ‘home world’ or from the general population. (Willcocks D, Peace, S and Kellaher l, 1987). This preparation makes the adaptation in the new environment easier. Involuntary entry into the total institutions is however different as one may not be prepared for the new kind of life. Inmates may find themselves perform some roles that they learnt in the institutions on return to the general world. All the same there are certain houses that will have to be incurred or faced for instance the time for education or parenting. There is also the loss of legal privileges for instance one may not be in a position to attend to court proceedings on matters that affect them directly for instance adoption of a child. These privileges may be short term they maybe enjoyed on the completion of the term. However there are others with long term ramifications. The realization that one has not lost certain rights due to the barrier between him and the outside world may not auger well with him. There are other challenges that the inmate faces on return to the society. For instance there are the admission requirements where certain standards have to be followed or adhered to. On entrance to the total institutions various losses are incurred as for instance one may lose their hair, their identity as they are assigned numbers, they undress and change their clothes and are given institutional uniforms, they list their possessions, have to adhere to the rules and they are also assigned to certain quarters where they are to reside. According to Goffmann’s findings the society is to blame for deviance within it as it subjects people it terms as wrong doers into harsh conditions and expects them to reform. (Willcocks D, Peace, S and Kellaher l, 1987). In the book the ‘Myth of mental illness’ Thomas Szasz argued that mental illness was a myth. To him, the whole idea or notion of psychiatric illness could be termed as ‘scientifically worthless and socially harmful’. (Shorter E, 1997). There are similarities between goffman and szasz ideologies. Goffman backed Szasz when he made the conclusion that the mental health institution he studied could be defined as a ‘total institution’ where ‘the closed system infantilized the patients and restricted their lives’. Goffman noted that the clear difference between the staff and the patients and on entrance to the institutions the patients faced humiliation, degradation, abasement and profanations of the self’. Goffman rejected the idea of prisons and mental health institutions which according to him robbed off the inmates their time. The ‘sentence’ denied them living. The aspect of alienation is clear when the use of power is used by the staff members against the ‘patients’. He condemned the pretence by the staff members that they were out to assist the patients and dismissed it as a mere ’power grab’. (Shorter E, 1997). Szasz argued that although psychological disorders are real, defining them as diseases was a way of imposing coercion in the society. He argued that defining such disorders as illness when they had no correlation with physical sickness was untrue. The only relationship existing between mental disorders and physical illness was the fact that they both made the individual unable to handle their daily activities or duties. (www. mdx. ac. uk). The psychological disorders according to Szasz were brought about by man. He further noted that compulsory psychiatry is a crime against humanity and it undermines freedom in the society. He quoted Mill to justify his observation that ‘the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will is to prevent harm to others. His own good either physical or moral is not sufficiently warranty’. However unlike Mill, Szasz offered or rather provided no exception where power could be used forcefully. He advocated for freedom where all individuals are given the chance to choose what they find best for them. Although the compulsory psychiatry may not be harmful to the patients Szasz argues that it is not compatible with a free society. (www. mdx. ac. uk). He further advocates for the application of universal law which is not discriminative to anyone in the society. The same law applied to those termed as insane ought to be the same applied on those viewed as insane. Treating people otherwise is unfair as it implies that there is no equality and they are treated as special beings. Any form of special treatment on the allegations that one is mentally sick is unfortunate as it treats them as less human beings. (www. mdx. ac. uk). References: Anthony Clare and Peter Sedgwick. Mental Health and Civil Liberties. A theoretical contrast of Thomas Szasz. Retrieved on 5th march 2009 from http://www. mdx. ac. uk/WWW/STUDY/mhhlib. htm#SzaszMyth Dianne M. Willcocks, Sheila M. Peace, Leonie A. Kellaher. 1987. Private Lives in Public Places: A Research-based Critique of Residential Life in Local Authority Old \ Peoples Homes. Taylor Francis Publishers. Edward Shorter 1997. A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. John Wiley and Sons Publishers John Palmer Hawkins and Faris Kirkland. 2001. Army of hope, army of alienation: culture and contradiction in the American Army communities of Cold War Germany. Greenwood Publishing Group Tim Jordan, Steve Pile, 2002. Open University Social Change. Blackwell Publishing, Lewis Coser. 2006. Crime Theories and the Field of Criminology. Retrieved on 4th march 2009 from http://www. apsu. edu/oconnort/1010/1010lect02. htm.

Wilhelm II: Policy Making in 1914 Berlin

Wilhelm II: Policy Making in 1914 Berlin Q. Who was in charge of policy in Berlin in 1914 and why did they act as they  did? ‘A vigorous transition to an imperialist policy will give Germany the space  it needs . . . An unsuccessful war can no more than set Germany back,  although for a long time; England it can destroy. As victor England will be  rid of an awkward competitor; Germany will become what England is  now, the world power.’ (Das Neue Deutschland) ‘The perpetual emphasis on peace at every opportunity — suitable and  unsuitable — has, in the last 43 years of peace, produced an altogether  eunuch-like attitude amongst the statesmen and diplomats of Europe’ (Wilhelm II) Historians of the Great War divide into two main camps when debating who were the principal policy-makers and men-in-charge of Germany at the outbreak of war in the summer of 1914. The first school, led historians such as Fritz Fischer, argues that Germany’s Kaiser, Wilhelm II, Germany’s Imperial Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg, and Germany’s Chief of the General Staff, Helmuth Moltke, colluded to deliberately and consciously begin full-scale and non-localized war. This school states that Germany’s imperialist ambitions — as exemplified in the quotations above — growing as they did out of national pride and exuberance of her unification in 1871, had given Germany an insatiable appetite to copy and surpass the political hegemony enjoyed then by England. The second school, led by mostly defunct and sentimental German national historians like Kessler, rejects the suggestion of a ‘premeditated European war’ and posits a state of affairs where, under extreme international pressure, Germany’s politicians had to, as a last resort, cede authority to the military so that they could defend Germany from hostile neighbours. This essay will argue that the great bulk of past and historical evidence  ­Ã¢â‚¬â€ Wilhelm’s and others personal diaries, military documents, parliamentary papers and so on — reveal that the first school has it right when they say that policy was made in collusion between Wilhelm II, Bethmann and Moltke’s army. These policy-makers acted as they did because they feared that their opportunity for imperialist expansion was about to close, and with it Germany’s long-sought-for hopes of world-power. The Imperial Chancellor and Moltke manipulated the Reichstag and Kaiser Wilhelm II so as to engender the deliberate inevitability of war.. According to Hewitson[1], two potentially decisive policy-makers — the German public: particularly the newly-formed industrialized and urbanized classes; and German political parties — were sidelined from major policy decisions near the start of the war. The unification of Germany under Bismarck in 1871 had, like in Italy, summoned up an awesome spirit of nationalism amongst Germans, and this nationalist pride flowed out into ambitions for Germany to have an empire to rival those of England and France. In the same period, German society underwent a tremendous social and political transformation, with power moving from the old Junker and agricultural classes to Germany’s huge new urbanized masses. This shift from agriculture to industry meant that the urbanized Germans now had a potentially decisive voice in national affairs and policy decisions. In 1914 it was not explicit however that Germany’s industrialized citizens would have unanimously backed the typ e of war that was declared by its leaders that summer. Bethmann speciously claimed, after the war, that ‘. . . the war did not arise out of single diplomatic actions, but was rather a result of public passion’. In reality, whilst the German public knew the general background to the international situation, they knew nearly nothing whatsoever about the particular decisions and policies that were being made by their leaders in the critical weeks in July 1914. Of course, not knowing of the seriousness of events in Serbia and Austria, the German public were not able to use their considerable power to have any effect upon the policy-decisions behind those events. Hewitson[2] argues that Bethmann, Zimmermann, Jagow, the Kaiser and Moltke deliberately kept the German people in the dark because they feared that the people might raise opposition to an aggressive and non-localized conflict. Thus, Clemens von Delbruck, Secretary of State for the Interior in 1914, could state that ‘. . . we (the Chancellor’s division) have not spoken about foreign policy at all, the daily press was completely calm, and no one amongst the visitors present suspected the slightest thing about the imminent danger of war’. Journalists and the public they reported for were subjected to a lengthy and elaborate efforts from the Kaiser and his military to conceal Germany’s true intentions until such a point that when did become known to the public, it would like Germany was a victim and only fighting a ‘defensive’ and ‘localized’ war. The Chief of Wilhelm’s Naval Cabinet thus stated in July 1914 that ‘The gove rnment has managed brilliantly to make us (Germany) look like the attacked’[3][4]. A similar blanket was thrown over the eyes of Germany’s politicians and political parties. Immediately after Archduke Ferdinand’s assassination in Sarajevo, most of Germany’s politicians were away from Berlin on their annual holidays; this simple fact meant that their influence over policy, and any opposition they might have normally raised to the aggression of Wilhelm and Moltke, was largely neutralized by their absence. By the time politicians returned to Berlin, the decision to go to war had been made and they had no retrospective power to reverse this policy. Likewise, German politicians were culpable for a major underestimation of the seriousness of events after the Sarajevo bombing. Politicians and liberal newspapers such as the Vossiche Zeitung and the Frankfurter Zeitung said in the immediate aftermath of the assassination that the ‘Serbian government had no part in the crime’; even right-wing newspapers such as the Berliner Neueste Nachricht en neither anticipated nor called for retaliation against Serbia for the assassination. This attitude can be praised for seeking to pacify Germany and to avoid war; it can likewise be criticized for a certain naivety, underestimating the true intentions of the German military. These two groups then — the German public and the German politicians — can be said to have had a very limited effect upon the policy decisions taken in July 1914. If not these, who then were the principal policy-makers in charge in 1914? Kaiser Wilhelm II ostensibly, and perhaps in reality, was a central figure in such decisions. Wilhelm was the supreme figure in German life: he was Commander-in-Chief of the German army, and was empowered by Articles 11 and 18 of the German constitution to declare war. The allies recognised Wilhelm’s centrality in controlling policy in 1914 when at the Treaty of Versailles they named him as a ‘war criminal’ with direct responsibility for Germany’s deliberate attempt to begin the war. This picture of Wilhelm’s central involvement, and his desire for war, is supported by documentary evidence from the weeks and months immediately preceding the war. Writing of Friedrich von Pourtales, German ambassador to Russia, Wilhelm said that ‘†¦ he would do better to leave unwritten’ his thoughts about Russia’s lack of desire for war. Later, also of Pourtales, that à ¢â‚¬ËœHe makes those who are ignorant of Russia and weak, suspect characters amongst his readers, totally confused’[5]. Numerous other ambassadorial documents and diaries reveal that, within the German and international diplomatic community, Wilhelm’s opinions were believed to directly shape and determine the direction of German foreign policy[6]. Given the tone and content of the quotations cited above, it is clear that, if Wilhelm did indeed have as much power as his diplomats believed, that he used this to engender war deliberately and on a grand scale rather ‘in defence’ or in a ‘localized context’. Nonetheless, numerous historians, Kennedy and Herwig for instance, argue that diplomatic assessments of Wilhelm’s powers were blinkered, and that in truth he had profoundly little influence over policy in 1914. Kennedy[7] describes how Wilhelm’s power and influence over policy, at its acme around 1900, began to wane due to scandal and incompetence in the years preceding 1914. The disastrous Daily Telegraph foreign policy decisions, as well as the Eulenberg court scandal, had led to plummet of his authority amongst both the German public and its ruling elites; in Kennedy’s phrase he lacked a ‘personal regime’ that would have provided more decisive influence over policy. Wilhelm II confounded his loss of authority by dragging behind him an entourage of incompetent ambassadorial and diplomatic staff such as Pourtales, Wilhelm von Schoen and Karl Max von Lichnowsky. The Imperial Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg, had often opposed Wilhelm’s decisions i n the years before the war, and at the moment of the Serbian crisis reports show that Bethmann’s power clearly exceeded that possessed by Wilhelm. For instance, on July 5th 1914, Alexander von Hykos, appealed to Germany for aid in the Serbian crisis; Wilhelm II at once promised Ladislaus Szogyeny-Marich, Austria’s ambassador to Berlin German’s total support, but conditioned this promise with the following words ‘. . . that he (Wilhelm) must first hear what the Imperial Chancellor had to say’. Wilhelm II, conscious of previous challenges to his authority by Bethman, did not want to risk humiliation by promising Szogyeny-Marich Germany’s undoubted support, when he had first to inquire from Bethmann whether indeed the government would endorse such a policy. Further, during the crucial days of policy-making after Ferdinand’s assassination, the Imperial Chancellor deliberately kept Wilhelm II on holiday in Norway, and away from Berlin, for as long as possible. Central military policy-makers such as Tirpitz, Falkenhayn, Moltke and Waldersee returned from their holidays on July 24th; Wilhelm II did not return until the 27th — just one day before the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia became effective. Further, the Serbian government had sent a reply to Austria’s ultimatum on July 25th, yet the Chancellor was not permitted to see this reply until after Austria’s declaration of war. On August 1st the Kaiser, now avowing peace, sought to prevent war by halting German military mobilization in the West, thus enabling Britain and France to make declarations of their neutrality. Nonetheless, his interventions were opposed and by both Bethmann Hollweg and Moltke, and these oppositions proved decisive. All in all, such subservience and acquiescence to the Imperial Chancellor and to Moltke shows the fallacy of the power of the official titles held by Wilhelm II: he was Commander-in-Chief only in name, and the decision behind any declaration of war would be made principally by Bethmann Hollweg and by Moltke. As Stevenson has put it: ‘On each policy-making occasion before the war, and whether counselling war or peace, the Kaiser’s demands were overridden’[8]. Initially, the Kaiser gave his total support in the policy of deliberately beginning war, for he, like most Germans, sought to increase Germany’s international prestige. And during this time, it was advantageous for Bethmann and Moltke to let the Kaiser and his entourage believe that he still retained significant power over foreign policy; but the emptiness of that authority quickly becomes evident during the last week of July, when Wilhelm II turns to oppose war, but is thwarted in his attempts by the more powerful Bethmann and Moltke[9]. The last section of this essay implied that the true policy-makers in Berlin in 1914 were Moltke and Bethmann Hollweg and that their intentions were , from the start of the Serbian crisis, and indeed from much earlier, to pursue a deliberate policy of ‘expansive’ war and to replace England’s world political hegemony with its own. This section turns to examine these claims in depth, and to supply evidence for them. Principally, that the German General Staff and War Ministry, frustrated with the failure of imperialist strategy in recent years, and sensing the opportunity for an imperialist advance rapidly failing, that the military deliberately provoked the international community into the inevitability of war. In the days immediately preceding the Austrian declaration of war, and in stark contrast to the nescience of the German public, leading German military figures knew intimately the state of affairs in Austria and Serbia and were controlling both the flow of information about the crisis and the decisions that were to be made based upon it. Many German military figures were, like German politicians, absent on holiday when the Serbian assassination too place; yet unlike the politicians, Germany’s generals returned quickly to Berlin to seize the opportunity to effect their long-term war strategy. For instance, although later denying the accusation, Waldersee was shown, in recently uncovered parliamentary papers, to have returned three times from holiday back to Berlin during the period July 20th—27th. During these visits he was in intimate contact with Austrian military commanders, and was actively gathering extensive military intelligence about the readiness and preparation of the Austrians to go to war. Moltke, likewise, penned to his wife on July 22nd that ‘I am sorry not to be able to stay here (Karlsbad) another week, but I have to return to Berlin’ and ‘Tomorrow, the 23rd is the critical day! I am eager to find out what will happen’[10]. Comments like these imply a War Ministry highly cognizant of the events about them and of the influence that they might have in directing these events. Thus, historians like Mombauer[11], argue that the German military deliberately escalated the already precarious international situation by effecting a ‘military takeover’ in Germany. For instance, on July 29th, Moltke gave Bethmann a document called ‘Summary of the Political Situation’; yet within three days mobilization of the German army had already begun. ‘The spiritual progress of mankind is only possible through Germany. This  is why Germany will not lose this war; it is the only nation that can, at the  present moment, take charge of leading mankind towards a higher destiny’ (Helmuth von Moltke, November 1914)[12] Helmuth von Moltke, Germany’s Chief of the General Staff, and supreme military leader for most of WWI, had great influence the policy-decisions made in the days immediately preceding war. As the above quotation suggests, and as innumerable other bellicose statements of Moltke corroborate, the German military were inspired to war by the patriotic and nationalistic idea that Germany should have international hegemony over the cultural and spiritual life of man. It is consequently very difficult to believe that Moltke, and other similarly minded military leaders, were content to wait patiently for the realization of these ambitions whilst the opportunity to enact them seemed to be dwindling. Instead, the generals knew that success depended upon an aggressive and vigorous provocation of international tensions so as to ignite war. Moltke was instrumental in effecting this provocation and his slogan that war should come ‘the sooner the better’ has lingered in history as a testament to his bellicose intent. Moltke influence over the Sclieffen/Moltke Plan was enormous, and this plan was perhaps the most explicit declaration of aggressive intent seen before the war — deliberately seeking as it did to violate the neutrality of Belgium and Luxemburg so as to provoke a chain-reaction whereby England and France would be drawn into the war also. Mombauer argues that Moltke and his generals had decided long before the war that a successful campaign would have first to swiftly defeat France and the West swiftly, before turning to combat Russia. This plan depended upon strict adherence to a tight military strategy, and therefore the subjugation, of ‘secondary’ political concerns — such as the preservation of peace! Complicit in these preparations for war was the Imperial Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg. Though he protested somewhat at the celerity with which the military preparations gathered momentum  ­Ã¢â‚¬â€ Hewitson[13] records an argument (Ausienandersetzung) between Molke and Bethmann on July 30th — Bethmann nonetheless was cognizant of the preparations that his military men were making, and of the fact that these preparations were neither for a defensive nor a localized war. To this end, Bethmann told his ambassadors, on the eve of the war, that ‘. . . we have accepted the role of mediator’ — confirming his acquiescence to the generals’ will. Stevenson argues that Bethmann’s outward protests against war, such as his last minute demand for a ‘halt in Belgrade’, were never pursued vigorously enough or believed either by Bethmann himself or by the military. An entry from General Falkenhayn’s diary, dated July 30th, states that, af ter talks with Bethmann, Falkenhayn had ‘. . . got the decision accepted over the imminent danger of war’[14]. In other words, Bethmann either willingly consented or meekly acquiesced to the preparations for war as readied by Moltke. Wilson argues further that, rather than having a ‘military take-over’ forced upon his government, and thereby being unwillingly dragged into conflict, Bethmann in fact, on the evening of July 30th, still had the chance to pressure Austria to restrict its military mobilization and therefore to slow-down Russia’s also. Bethmann made no such appeal, and therefore, Wilson argues, endorsed the military’s aggressive planning. In the final analysis, the two principal policy-makers in Berlin in 1914 were Molke and Bethmann — though considerably aided by the Kaiser, even if he was not always fully conscious of his contribution to these decisions. The impossibility of maintaining the old argument that German policy-makers only entered WWI in self-defence, and then that they only intended a localized war, ought to be evident to any modern and objective historian. Since Fischer’s seminal War of Illusions was published in the 1967, historians of all countries, aided by the discovery of a vast amount of documentation from the period, have begun to ask not whether Germany sought war deliberately, but why she did so. Principally, Germany sought war because, since the efflorescence of national pride engendered by unification in 1871, Germany possessed a craving to follow the imperialist expansion of countries like England and France — a longing immortalized in the German caricature of Sleepy Mic hael, who has ‘woken up too late’ to claim his part of the international map. In 1914 Moltke and his military advisors thought they saw a moment to realize these ambitions. The European political and military conditions of 1914, aided by the catalyst of Archduke Ferdinand’s assassination, seemed to open a window for a ‘now or never’ lightning military thrust. The usual checks such as the Reichstag and public opinion that might have prevented or at least localized the war, were bypassed by the rapidity of events in the last week of July 1914, and by the lack of information that was made available to these groups. A historian’s final reflection on the question of policy might then be this: that Germany’s irrepressible jealousy of Britain, born out of convictions of her own cultural and spiritual supremacy, led her policy-makers to deliberately engineer the inevitability of war. BIBLIOGRAPHY Brose, E.D. (2001). The Kaiser’s Army: The Politics of Military Technology During the Machine Age. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Carroll, E.M. (1938). Germany and the Great Powers, 1860-1914. New York, Fantasy Press. Coetzee, M.S. (1990). The German Army League: Popular Nationalism in Wilhelmine Germany. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Cole, T.F. (1991). German Decision-Making on the Eve of the First-World War. Kaisermunch Press, Munich, Ferro, M. (1995). The Great War: 1914-1918. London. Fischer, F. (1967). War of Illusions: German Policies From 1911 to 1914. Catto   Windus Ltd, London. Gerghahn, V.R. (1993). Germany and the Approach of War. Herwig, H. (1991). The Outbreak of World War I: Causes and Responsibilities. (5th Ed.) Lexington, Massachusetts. Kennedy, P.M. (Edit.) (1979). The War Plans of the Great Powers: 1880-1914. New Haven, London. Kessel, E. (1957). Moltke. Stuttgart.   Mombauer, A. (2001). Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World  War. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. O’Connell, R.L. (1989). Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons and Aggression. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Quirk, R (Et. Al.). (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Stevenson, D. (1988). The First World War and International Politics. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Wilson, K. M. (1995). Decisions for War: 1914. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1 Footnotes [1] Hewitson, M. (2002). Germany and the Causes of the First World War. Berg, Oxford, p. 195. [2] Hewitson, M. (2002). Germany and the Causes of the First World War. Berg, Oxford, p. 198. [3] Herwig, H. (1991). The Outbreak of World War I: Causes and Responsibilities. (5th Ed.) Lexington,  Massachusetts, p55. [4] [5] Carroll, E.M. (1938). Germany and the Great Powers, 1860-1914. New York, Fantasy Press, p190. [6] Stevenson, D. (1988). The First World War and International Politics. Oxford University Press,  Oxford. [7] Kennedy, P.M. (Edit.) (1979). The War Plans of the Great Powers: 1880-1914. New Haven, London. [8] Stevenson, D. (1988). The First World War and International Politics. Oxford University Press,  Oxford, p200. [9] Stevenson, D. (1988). The First World War and International Politics. Oxford University Press,  Oxford, p251. [10] Hewitson, M. (2002). Germany and the Causes of the First World War. Berg, Oxford, p. 210. [11] Mombauer, A. (2001). Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War. Cambridge  University Press, Cambridge, p433. [12] Mombauer, A. (2001). Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War. Cambridge  University Press, Cambridge, p283. [13] Hewitson, M. (2002). Germany and the Causes of the First World War. Berg, Oxford, p202. [14] Wilson, K. M. (1995). Decisions for War: 1914. Oxford University Press, Oxford.